Health Advocacy

Institutional Islamophobia (the systemic marginalization of Muslims through policies, practices, and cultural norms) is increasingly recognized as a significant determinant of health inequity in Canada. For Muslim women, particularly those who are visibly Muslim, these barriers are compounded by gendered Islamophobia: discrimination at the intersection of religious identity and gender. This article examines how institutional and gendered Islamophobia shape health outcomes for Canadian Muslim women, drawing on published scholarly research to inform recommendations for policy and practice.

Institutional Islamophobia manifests in healthcare through policies that fail to accommodate religious practices, an absence of Muslim representation in the health workforce, and secular norms that exclude faith-based perspectives.  Canadian healthcare institutions often lack frameworks to accommodate Muslim patients' needs, resulting in missed care opportunities, distress, and systemic exclusion [1]. Muslim patients are frequently left to navigate uncertainty around prayer spaces, halal medication, modesty during exams, and access to gender-concordant providers [1].

This is reinforced by broader public health literature emphasizing how culturally unsafe care environments contribute to alienation and disengagement among minoritized populations. Muslim women disproportionately experience healthcare settings as sites of microaggression and moral judgment, particularly around reproductive health, mental illness, and personal agency [2].

The absence of policies supporting religious expression in care settings contributes to healthcare avoidance, mistrust of providers, and reduced adherence to care plans [3]. When modesty, fasting, or hijab-related concerns are ignored, they become obstacles to timely and respectful care—thus institutional Islamophobia directly undermines the principle of patient-centered care.

Gendered Islamophobia refers to the unique discrimination faced by Muslim women at the intersection of their religious and gender identities. Visibly Muslim women, particularly those who wear the hijab, report being infantilized, patronized, or viewed as culturally inferior in healthcare settings [3]. These interactions often involve microaggressions, dismissive attitudes, and assumptions that Muslim women lack agency.

Even among highly educated, Canadian-born Muslim women, structural discrimination and perceived bias from providers were significant predictors of healthcare dissatisfaction and delayed utilization [4]. This reinforces the idea that neither assimilation nor socioeconomic status insulates Muslim women from gendered Islamophobia.

Such dynamics have real health consequences including hesitancy in seeking care, discomfort in disclosing personal or religious information, and a deep-seated fear of judgment when navigating reproductive or mental health services [3]. 

The cumulative impact of institutional and gendered Islamophobia is profound. Delayed diagnoses, missed preventive screenings, underuse of mental health services, and poor chronic disease management have all been linked to religious discrimination in healthcare [1][2][3]. Muslim women who experience discrimination are less likely to engage in follow-up care and may rely on informal networks or delay treatment altogether.

Additionally, when Muslim women are unable to access female providers or are subjected to insensitive clinical encounters, this can result in underutilization of essential services such as cervical cancer screening, prenatal care, or postpartum support. Cultural safety frameworks—well-developed in Indigenous health contexts—are often absent in policies affecting Muslim patients, leaving a critical gap in equity-based healthcare planning [2].

Institutional and gendered Islamophobia in Canadian healthcare are not abstract concepts but lived realities that shape the health behaviors and outcomes of Muslim women. The exclusion of Islamic perspectives from health system design and the normalization of secular assumptions produce environments that alienate visibly Muslim women and deter them from engaging fully in care.

To advance health equity, Canadian healthcare institutions must move beyond performative multiculturalism and address the structural roots of Islamophobia. This includes investing in provider education on religious bias, enshrining rights to gender-concordant care, and involving Muslim women in the development of health equity policies. Without such reforms, the promise of universal healthcare will remain unrealized for a growing and diverse segment of Canada’s population.

Advocacy Recommendations

To reduce these barriers and build truly inclusive healthcare systems, we recommend:

Healthcare Institutions

• Name Islamophobia as a distinct form of discriminations that is pervasive and systemic institutionally.
• Train all staff in cultural and religious safety, including the specific needs of Muslim patients.
• Involve Muslim health professionals and faith leaders  in policy and education development.
• Create clear protocols and flow charts for accommodation requests.
• Establish prayer spaces and patient modesty kits in hospitals and diagnostic centers.
• Support the hiring and retention of Muslim clinicians and health navigators especially in underserved communities.

For Policy Makers and Researchers

• Fund community-led health research on Muslim populations in Canada.
• Develop equity based health indicators that track outcomes across religious demographics.
   

For Muslim Communities and Advocates

• Empower individuals to speak up and file complaints where discrimination occurs.
• Offer faith-based health education that bridges medical knowledge with Islamic values.
• Build collaborative networks that amplify community voice.

References

Hassen, N., Vahabi, M., Etowa, J., & Lofters, A. (2023). Muslim women's experiences with the healthcare system in Canada: A systematic review. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 49(3), 199–213. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2023-0462

McMaster Research Shop. (2024). Understanding Islamophobia in Healthcare. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/62dfed3280f5fb33a0fcf86d/t/676f8f404848b261bb0d6bb5/1735364417090/McMaster+Research+Shop+Report+-+MACC-5.pdf

Musani, M., et al. (2024). Experiences of Muslim Women Navigating Islamophobia in Healthcare: A Qualitative Study. SAGE Open Medical Sociology. https://doi.org/10.1177/08445621241258871

Zahid, A., Baker, J. R., McCabe, S., & Newton, A. S. (2024). Examining Muslim women’s experiences and barriers to health care in Canada: A cross-sectional analysis. BMC Public Health, 24, Article 792. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11528874/

Institutional Islamophobia (the systemic marginalization of Muslims through policies, practices, and cultural norms) is increasingly recognized as a significant determinant of health inequity in Canada. For Muslim women, particularly those who are visibly Muslim, these barriers are compounded by gendered Islamophobia: discrimination at the intersection of religious identity and gender. This article examines how institutional and gendered Islamophobia shape health outcomes for Canadian Muslim women, drawing on published scholarly research to inform recommendations for policy and practice.

Institutional Islamophobia manifests in healthcare through policies that fail to accommodate religious practices, an absence of Muslim representation in the health workforce, and secular norms that exclude faith-based perspectives.  Canadian healthcare institutions often lack frameworks to accommodate Muslim patients' needs, resulting in missed care opportunities, distress, and systemic exclusion [1]. Muslim patients are frequently left to navigate uncertainty around prayer spaces, halal medication, modesty during exams, and access to gender-concordant providers [1].

This is reinforced by broader public health literature emphasizing how culturally unsafe care environments contribute to alienation and disengagement among minoritized populations. Muslim women disproportionately experience healthcare settings as sites of microaggression and moral judgment, particularly around reproductive health, mental illness, and personal agency [2].

The absence of policies supporting religious expression in care settings contributes to healthcare avoidance, mistrust of providers, and reduced adherence to care plans [3]. When modesty, fasting, or hijab-related concerns are ignored, they become obstacles to timely and respectful care—thus institutional Islamophobia directly undermines the principle of patient-centered care.

Gendered Islamophobia refers to the unique discrimination faced by Muslim women at the intersection of their religious and gender identities. Visibly Muslim women, particularly those who wear the hijab, report being infantilized, patronized, or viewed as culturally inferior in healthcare settings [3]. These interactions often involve microaggressions, dismissive attitudes, and assumptions that Muslim women lack agency.

Even among highly educated, Canadian-born Muslim women, structural discrimination and perceived bias from providers were significant predictors of healthcare dissatisfaction and delayed utilization [4]. This reinforces the idea that neither assimilation nor socioeconomic status insulates Muslim women from gendered Islamophobia.

Such dynamics have real health consequences including hesitancy in seeking care, discomfort in disclosing personal or religious information, and a deep-seated fear of judgment when navigating reproductive or mental health services [3]. 

The cumulative impact of institutional and gendered Islamophobia is profound. Delayed diagnoses, missed preventive screenings, underuse of mental health services, and poor chronic disease management have all been linked to religious discrimination in healthcare [1][2][3]. Muslim women who experience discrimination are less likely to engage in follow-up care and may rely on informal networks or delay treatment altogether.

Additionally, when Muslim women are unable to access female providers or are subjected to insensitive clinical encounters, this can result in underutilization of essential services such as cervical cancer screening, prenatal care, or postpartum support. Cultural safety frameworks—well-developed in Indigenous health contexts—are often absent in policies affecting Muslim patients, leaving a critical gap in equity-based healthcare planning [2].

Institutional and gendered Islamophobia in Canadian healthcare are not abstract concepts but lived realities that shape the health behaviors and outcomes of Muslim women. The exclusion of Islamic perspectives from health system design and the normalization of secular assumptions produce environments that alienate visibly Muslim women and deter them from engaging fully in care.

To advance health equity, Canadian healthcare institutions must move beyond performative multiculturalism and address the structural roots of Islamophobia. This includes investing in provider education on religious bias, enshrining rights to gender-concordant care, and involving Muslim women in the development of health equity policies. Without such reforms, the promise of universal healthcare will remain unrealized for a growing and diverse segment of Canada’s population.

Advocacy Recommendations

To reduce these barriers and build truly inclusive healthcare systems, we recommend:

Healthcare Institutions

• Name Islamophobia as a distinct form of discriminations that is pervasive and systemic institutionally.
• Train all staff in cultural and religious safety, including the specific needs of Muslim patients.
• Involve Muslim health professionals and faith leaders  in policy and education development.
• Create clear protocols and flow charts for accommodation requests.
• Establish prayer spaces and patient modesty kits in hospitals and diagnostic centers.
• Support the hiring and retention of Muslim clinicians and health navigators especially in underserved communities.

For Policy Makers and Researchers

• Fund community-led health research on Muslim populations in Canada.
• Develop equity based health indicators that track outcomes across religious demographics.
   

For Muslim Communities and Advocates

• Empower individuals to speak up and file complaints where discrimination occurs.
• Offer faith-based health education that bridges medical knowledge with Islamic values.
• Build collaborative networks that amplify community voice.

References

Hassen, N., Vahabi, M., Etowa, J., & Lofters, A. (2023). Muslim women's experiences with the healthcare system in Canada: A systematic review. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 49(3), 199–213. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2023-0462

McMaster Research Shop. (2024). Understanding Islamophobia in Healthcare. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/62dfed3280f5fb33a0fcf86d/t/676f8f404848b261bb0d6bb5/1735364417090/McMaster+Research+Shop+Report+-+MACC-5.pdf

Musani, M., et al. (2024). Experiences of Muslim Women Navigating Islamophobia in Healthcare: A Qualitative Study. SAGE Open Medical Sociology. https://doi.org/10.1177/08445621241258871

Zahid, A., Baker, J. R., McCabe, S., & Newton, A. S. (2024). Examining Muslim women’s experiences and barriers to health care in Canada: A cross-sectional analysis. BMC Public Health, 24, Article 792. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11528874/